Hawaii Education

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Hawaii is known for its distinct blend of cultural heritages, and the range of the state's cultural institutions reflects this diversity.

Education
American missionaries established an educational system in Hawaii in 1820, and in 1840 King Kamehameha III set up the island's first public school system. In the late 1980s Hawaii had 234 public elementary and secondary schools; the combined annual elementary enrollment was 123,500 pupils and the total secondary enrollment was 46,000 students. Approximately 29,500 students attended private schools. In the same period Hawaii had 14 institutions of higher education, with a combined enrollment of about 54,200 students. Among the most notable of these schools were the University of Hawaii (1907), with its main campuses at Honolulu and Hilo; Hawaii Pacific University (1965), in Honolulu; Hawaii Loa College (1963), in Kaneohe; Chaminade University of Honolulu (1955), in Honolulu; and Brigham Young University Hawaii Campus (1955), in Laie on Oahu.


Hawaii, Pacific state of the United States. It consists mainly of the Hawaiian Islands, an archipelago near the geographic center of the North Pacific Ocean, and other islets unrelated geographically to the archipelago; in all, eight main islands and 124 islets, reefs, and shoals. The major islands in order of size are Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, Kauai, Molokai, Lanai, Niihau, and Kahoolawe.
Hawaii entered the Union on August 21, 1959, as the 50th state. Hawaii's economy was long dominated by plantation agriculture and military spending. As agriculture has declined in importance, the economy has diversified to encompass a large tourist business and a growing manufacturing industry. The name of the state is taken from the island of Hawaii and is a Polynesian word or name of unknown meaning. In the 19th century the name was extended to the entire archipelago. Hawaii is called the Aloha State.

Land and Resources
Hawaii, with an area of 28,313 sq km (10,932 sq mi), is the 43rd largest state in the U.S.; 6.9% of the land is owned by the federal government. The islands of the state extend in a 2400-km (about 1490-mi) arc from east to west. Elevations range from sea level to 4205 m (13,796 ft) at the peak of Mauna Kea, on Hawaii Island. The state's coastline is 1207 km (750 mi) long.

Physical Geography
The eight main Hawaiian islands comprise the tops of one or more shield volcanoes (those that form from quiet lava flows rather than explosions), which rise from the floor of the Pacific Ocean. The largest island, Hawaii, is formed from five volcanoes: Mauna Kea, Mauna Loa, Hualalai, Kohala, and Kilauea. Both Mauna Loa and Kilauea are active. Maui is made up of two shield volcanoes and a central plain, the isthmus. The larger of the volcanoes is Haleakala; the smaller is the more heavily eroded West Maui Mountain, the highest peak of which is Puu Kukui. Oahu has two heavily eroded shield volcanoes, which form the Koolau and Wainanae mountain ranges. Between the two ranges lies a central plateau, on which sugar and pineapple are planted. Honolulu lies on a coral plain at the southeastern end of the island. Prominent features of Oahu's landscape are Diamond Head and Punchbowl, both tuff cones—volcanic features caused by explosive ash eruptions.
Kauai consists of a single eroded volcanic shield. The island has spectacular sea cliffs on its northwestern coast, the famed Na Pali Coast, as well as a number of inland canyons, the most notable of which is the spectacular Waimea Canyon. Molokai comprises a plateau in the west and rugged mountains in the east. Jutting out from the precipitous northern coast of this island is the Kalaupapa Peninsula, site of a colony for victims of leprosy (Hansen's disease). Lanai is a single shield volcano with a central plateau on which is located the world's largest pineapple plantation. Niihau consists of a plateau that rises above coastal plains. Privately owned, it has a population that is almost completely ethnic Hawaiian. Smallest of the eight main islands is the barren and unpopulated Kahoolawe, used as a military bombing target. The small western islands are either coral atolls or lava formations. Soils are generally present in coastal areas and in areas between mountain ranges.

Rivers and Lakes
Despite generally heavy rainfall, most water percolates into the porous lava and soils; in many places artesian wells tap subterranean water supplies where they have collected on less porous rock layers. The meager surface runoff forms no rivers or lakes of any consequence. The longest river in the state of Hawaii is Kaukonahua Stream on the island of Oahu, and the largest natural lake in the state is Halulu Lake on Niihau.

Climate
Hawaii has a tropical climate moderated by oceanic influences and prevailing northeasterly trade winds. Temperatures vary little from place to place except with elevation. The average annual temperature of about 23.9° C (about 75° F) varies little between summer and winter months. The recorded temperature in the state has ranged from -11.1° C (12° F) at Mauna Kea in 1979 to 37.8° C (100° F) at Pahala in 1931.
Unlike temperature, rainfall varies tremendously according to location. Highest rainfall is usually at moderate elevations on the windward (E) sides of islands and is due to the condensing of moisture in the oceanic trade winds. Leeward (W) locations are drier, because they are shielded by mountains from the moist winds. The lowest rainfall in the state is at Puako on leeward Hawaii, which averages 145 mm (5.7 in) a year. Mount Waialeale on Kauai has what is probably the world's greatest annual rainfall, averaging 12,344 mm (486 in). Severe storms are uncommon, but in September 1992 Hurricane Iniki caused an estimated $1 billion in damage, mostly on Kauai.

Plants and Animals
More than 2500 species of native plants and a large number of introduced plants are found on the islands, including a great variety of shrubs, trees, grasses, and flowering plants. The only native mammals are the hoary bat, the monk seal, and the Polynesian rat. The latter was introduced by early Polynesian settlers but has evolved into a distinct subspecies. A variety of native birds are found, but many species, such as the Hawaiian goose (nene), are endangered. Many species of birds and domesticated mammals have been introduced to the islands since the early 19th century.

Population
According to the 1990 census, Hawaii had 1,108,229 inhabitants, an increase of 14.9% over 1980. The average population density in 1990 was 39 people per sq km (101 per sq mi). Hawaii had the most racially and ethnically diverse population of any state in the U.S. Whites made up 33.4% of the population, the lowest proportion of any state; blacks made up 2.5% of the total. Among the many other population groups were 247,486 persons of Japanese descent (22.3% of the total); 168,682 persons of Filipino origin (15.2%); 138,742 persons of Hawaiian ancestry (12.5%); 68,804 persons of Chinese extraction (6.2%); 24,454 persons of Korean descent (2.2%); and 15,034 persons of Samoan extraction (1.4%). Many people in the state are mixtures of several racial and ethnic backgrounds. Hawaii also had a notable diversity of religious groups, with Eastern religions forming significant minorities. Hawaii is one of the most urbanized states in the nation. In 1990 about 89% of all the people of Hawaii lived in areas defined as urban, and the rest lived in rural areas. The largest communities were Honolulu, the capital; Hilo; Kailua; Kaneohe; and Waipahu.

Cultural Institutions
Hawaii's museums contain some of the finest collections of Polynesian ethnology and natural history in the world. Among the most noteworthy of these are the following: the Bernice Pauahi Bishop Museum, the oldest museum in Hawaii, which opened in Honolulu in 1889; Hanalei Museum, in Hanalei, Kauai; and the Kauai Museum, in Lihue. Honolulu is also the home of the Honolulu Academy of Arts, with collections of both Western and Oriental art; the Hawaii Opera Theatre; the Honolulu Symphony Orchestra; and the Archives of Hawaii, the most extensive collection of Hawaiian literature in the United States.

Historical Sites
Many of Hawaii's historical sites commemorate Hawaiian monarchs and the islands' early Polynesian heritage. The Pu'uhonua o Honaunau National Historical Park, in Honaunau, was originally a sanctuary built about 1500; Iolani Palace, in Honolulu, built between 1879 and 1882, was the royal residence of the last two rulers of the Hawaiian Kingdom; King Kamehameha's statue, in Kapaau, was commissioned by the legislature in 1878; and the village of Ulu Mau, in Kaneohe, is a replica of an early Hawaiian village. Also of note is the USS Arizona Memorial, in Honolulu's Pearl Harbor.

Sports and Recreation
Hawaii's mild, semitropical climate, long coastline, and beautiful mountains make it ideal for such outdoor activities as surfing, swimming, hiking, boating, golf, tennis, skindiving, and camping. International surfing competitions are held at Makaha on Oahu. Honolulu is the site of the annual Pro Bowl All-Star football game and the collegiate Aloha Bowl.

Communications
In the early 1990s Hawaii had 28 AM and 27 FM radiobroadcasting stations and 21 television stations. The first radio stations, KDYX and KGU, both in Honolulu, were licensed in 1922. KGMB-TV, the first commercial television station, began operation in 1952 in Honolulu. The Sandwich Island Gazette, initially published in Honolulu in 1836, was the first English-language newspaper printed in Hawaii. In the early 1990s Hawaii had six daily newspapers, with a total circulation of about 244,300. Two influential dailies are the Honolulu Advertiser and the Honolulu Star-Bulletin.

Government and Politics
Hawaii is governed under a constitution adopted in 1950 and put into effect in 1959, as amended. An amendment to the constitution may be proposed by the legislature or by constitutional convention, and requires approval by a majority of those voting on the amendment, who must also represent a legally specified percentage of the electorate.

Executive
The chief executive of Hawaii is a governor who is popularly elected to a 4-year term. A governor may serve two consecutive terms, but must wait four years before being eligible for the position again. The same stipulations apply to the lieutenant governor, who succeeds the governor should the latter resign, die, or be removed from office. Other elected administrative officials include a 13-member board of education.

Legislature
The bicameral Hawaii legislature comprises a senate and a house of representatives. The 25 members of the senate are elected to 4-year terms; the 51 members of the house are elected to 2-year terms.

Judiciary
Hawaii's highest court, the supreme court, is made up of 5 justices. The intermediate appellate court has 3 judges. The major trial courts are the circuit courts with a total of 24 judges. Justices of all these courts are appointed by the governor, with the consent of the senate, to 10-year terms. Other courts include district courts, a family court, and a land court.

Local Government
In the early 1990s, Hawaii had four counties governed by popularly elected mayors and county council members. A fifth county, administered by the state department of health, did not serve as a political unit. Hawaii was the only state with no incorporated municipalities or equivalent form of local government.

National Representation
Hawaii elects two senators and two representatives to the U.S. Congress. The state has four electoral votes in presidential elections.

Politics
Republican candidates usually dominated in elections in Hawaii until the late 1950s. Since then, Hawaii has generally been in the Democratic column in presidential elections, and Democrats have held most local offices.

Economy
Following the discovery of Hawaii in 1778, the islands' traditional subsistence economy evolved to one based on trade in sandalwood and the provision of foodstuffs to visiting ships. The sugar industry was established in 1835 and grew greatly in importance during the next several decades; it was soon accompanied by the growth of the pineapple industry. From 1900, when Hawaii became a U.S. territory, military activities became increasingly important. During World War II the islands served as the chief base for U.S. military forces in the Pacific. Tourism has grown dramatically since the 1950s. In the 1990s, plantation agriculture played a diminishing role in Hawaii's economy, which was dominated by government and service industries.

Agriculture
Farming now accounts for only two percent of the annual gross state product in Hawaii. The state has approximately 4600 farms, which average 151 hectares (372 acres) in size. Crops account for about 85 percent of yearly agricultural income. The leading traditional crops, sugarcane and pineapple, are grown on large plantations. Sugarcane is grown on the islands of Hawaii, Maui, Oahu, and Kauai. Pineapple growing, formerly a major industry on Oahu, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai, has declined in significance, and diversified farming is becoming increasingly important. Fruits and vegetables are grown for local consumption, and papayas, macadamia nuts, flowers and nursery products, and coffee are grown for export. The last-named is grown in the Kona district of Hawaii Island and is the only coffee grown in the U.S. Cattle are raised on several islands, but livestock products account for only about 15% of farm income. Most food items must be imported, since diversified agriculture cannot supply the food needs of the state's population.

Fishing
The annual income from the fishing industry is relatively small. A major share of the catch is tuna; skipjack and yellowfin tuna are the most important varieties. Numerous species are caught for local consumption.

Mining
The mining industry accounts for less than one percent of the annual gross state product. Stone is the principal mineral product. Cement, sand and gravel, and pumice are also produced.

Manufacturing
Enterprises engaged in manufacturing account for about four percent of the annual gross state product in Hawaii. Some 21,000 workers are employed in manufacturing. The principal industries are food processing (especially the production of raw sugar and canned fruits and juices), printing and publishing, and the manufacture of clothing and textile products. Petroleum is refined only for the local market, but processed foods and textile products are sold locally and exported to the mainland U.S. and to foreign markets. Other industries include the manufacture of chemicals, furniture, and transportation equipment.

Tourism
The tourist industry is by far the most important sector of Hawaii's economy. Each year more than 6.8 million visitors produce more than $10 billion for the state economy. Tourism directly or indirectly provides more than 225,000 jobs. Visitors are attracted to Hawaii because of its year-round pleasant climate, its spectacular scenery of beaches and volcanoes, and its multiethnic culture. The principal resort area is Waikiki, on Oahu, where most of the hotels are located, and where the beach is world famous. The islands of Hawaii, Maui, and Kauai also have important visitor areas, and tourism is developing on Molokai as well. Among the five areas administered by the National Park Service are Hawaii Volcanoes National Park, on Hawaii, and Haleakala National Park, on Maui; each receives more than one million visitors annually. The state also maintains a system of 41 parks and more than 60 state forests.

Transportation
Water transportation is vital to Hawaii. Modern container ships provide the islands with consumer goods, and take the state's exports—chiefly raw sugar and canned fruits and juices—to the mainland. Modern ports are located at Honolulu and Barbers Point, on Oahu; the latter is an oil terminal. Smaller ports include Hilo, on Hawaii, and Kahului, on Maui. Molokai and Lanai have barge harbors for receipt and shipment of interisland cargoes.
The state has a total of about 6600 km (about 4100 mi) of federal, state, and local roads. Several local airlines provide both passenger and cargo transportation interisland; in all, Hawaii has 34 airports and 16 heliports. Honolulu International Airport is one of the busiest in the nation; of the other major islands, only Niihau and Kahoolawe are without commercial airports. Hawaii has no public railroads.

Energy
Electricity generating plants in Hawaii have a total capacity of about 1.5 million kwh and produce some 8 billion kw of electric power each year. Imported oil is burned to provide almost all the state's electrical energy needs, but windmills are being increasingly used for electric power generation. Solar energy to provide hot water is widely used in the state.

History
The Hawaiian people, whose ancestors originally came across the ocean from Polynesia in the 1st millennium AD, developed a tribal society in isolation, but their cultural ties to Polynesia are obvious. Hawaiians clustered in villages along the islands' seashores, without any knowledge of the use of metal. The men fished, farmed, and cooked. The Hawaiian diet was mostly fish, supplemented by pigs, chickens, and dogs. The main crop was wetland taro—a starchy, edible root, grown in flooded fields. Taro was baked and then pounded into a pasty substance called poi. The women reared the children, made clothes, and wove mats for domestic uses from the palmlike leaves of the screw pine. The Hawaiian population was divided into nobles, priests, and commoners.
The Hawaiians worshiped four major gods and a host of minor deities. Their places of worship, called heiaus, were constructed from lava rock. The religious and social structure revolved around the concept of kapu, known elsewhere in Polynesia as taboo, which established prohibitive, or restrictive, rules for the various segments of society and created a caste system. Priests and rulers determined proper behavior patterns for the people. Hawaii's tribal society transmitted its legends and traditions through songs, dances, chants, and stories.

Early European Contacts and the Emergence of the Kingdom
The English explorer Captain James Cook landed on Kauai in January 1778. He named his discovery the Sandwich Islands in honor of his patron, John Montagu, 4th earl of Sandwich. (The name later fell into disuse as English influence gave way to U.S. domination.) After a voyage to the northern Pacific, Cook returned to Hawaii to winter, but earlier friendly relations with the Hawaiians had deteriorated, and Cook was killed during a punitive expedition against them in 1779.
By 1790, only a dozen years after Cook's arrival, Westerners had settled throughout the islands. On Oahu, Europeans of various nations lived near Honolulu's splendid harbor, while the Hawaiians resided in Waikiki. Under the influence of these newcomers, Hawaiian living and dietary habits changed dramatically in the late 18th century, and at the same time, new contagious diseases and alcoholism decimated the ranks of the native inhabitants.
Between 1790 and 1810, the islands were united politically under the leadership of a native king, Kamehameha I, whose five successors—all bearing the name Kamehameha—ruled the kingdom from his death in 1819 until the end of the dynasty in 1872.

The Growth of U.S. Domination
Beginning in 1819, the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions, founded by New England Congregationalists, sent 11 groups of missionaries to Hawaii. The Americans imposed their life-style, morality, and religion throughout the islands, teaching the Hawaiians that their traditional way of life was sinful. During the first half of the 19th century, foreign whaling ships wintered at Honolulu and Lahaina, bringing additional influences that threatened the indigenous culture.
Two developments determined the kingdom's fate—the decline of the native population and the increasing importance of sugar as an export crop. The first sustained sugar plantation was begun at Koloa, Kauai, in 1835. Missionaries and their sons acquired large landholdings, founding companies that still dominate the Hawaiian sugar industry. The need for large numbers of field and mill hands led the planters to import Chinese and Japanese workers.
Although the Kamehameha dynasty had generally been friendly to settlers from the U.S., King Kalakaua and Queen Liliuokalani strove to reverse American influence in the government and economy, hoping to return Hawaii to the Hawaiians. At the same time, the islands experienced economic hardship when the 1890 McKinley Tariff levied a duty on sugar. A Committee on Safety, supported by U.S. Consul John L. Stevens, seized control of the kingdom on January 17, 1893, and established a provisional government, headed by Sanford B. Dole, the son of an American missionary. Dole pressed for U.S. annexation of the islands, but President Grover Cleveland's administration rejected the proposal. The provisional government then created the Republic of Hawaii on July 4, 1894, with Dole as president.

Hawaii as a U.S. Territory
In 1898, when Cleveland's successor, William McKinley, called for annexation, Congress agreed, and Hawaii was annexed by the United States on August 12, 1898. The territorial government was organized in 1900, and Dole was the first governor. The territory was allowed one delegate who could speak, but not vote, in the U.S. House of Representatives.
Although U.S. leaders wanted to Americanize the islands as quickly as possible, U.S. laws did not always fit local conditions. The Homestead Act of 1862 was but one example. Several presidents hoped that mainland settlers would help in the Americanization process, but no vast areas of unoccupied and usable public land were available for newcomers as had been the case in the American West. See HOMESTEAD LAWS.
Both the economy and the government were dominated by five companies, known as the Big Five, that had served as agents for sugar plantations since the 19th century. The Big Five also controlled banking and merchandising, were represented on one another's boards of directors, and were in charge of most public commissions.
Pearl Harbor, the keystone to America's Pacific defense after World War I, was attacked on December 7, 1941, by the Japanese, bringing the United States into World War II. The next day Hawaii was placed under martial law, and the army governed the territory until October 1944.

Statehood
Before and after World War II, Hawaii's residents called for statehood. Congressional hearings were dominated by the issue of the Japanese population. Prejudice against the Japanese and concern about Communist influence in Hawaiian labor unions, slowed the statehood campaign, but Congress finally passed legislation making Hawaii the 50th state in 1959.
The last territorial governor, William F. Quinn, defeated the territorial delegate John A. Burns to become the first state governor. In 1962 Burns was elected to the first of three terms, and the influence of the Big Five began to wane. In 1974 George Ariyoshi became the first American of Japanese descent to win election as governor of a state; he was reelected in 1978 and 1982. His successor, John D. Waihee III, was elected in 1986 and reelected in 1990. Since the 1960s, plantation agriculture has declined in importance, and tourism has become Hawaii's major industry; how to accommodate the tourist boom while preserving the islands' natural beauty was one of Hawaii's greatest challenges as the 1990s began. Another challenge was posed by Hurricane Iniki, which devastated Kauai in September 1992.

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